Organic Foods Pdf Essay Example for Free

Organic Foods Pdf Essay Abstract: During the last decade, consumers’ trust in food quality has decreased drastically, mainly because of growing ecological awareness and several food scandals (e. g. BSE, dioxins, bacterial contamination). It has been found that intensive conventional agriculture can introduce contaminants into the food chain. Consumers have started to look for safer and better controlled foods produced in more environmentally friendly, authentic and local systems. Organically produced foods are widely believed to satisfy the above demands, leading to lower environmental impacts and higher nutritive values. So far, studies have partly con? rmed this opinion. Organic crops contain fewer nitrates, nitrites and pesticide residues but, as a rule, more dry matter, vitamin C, phenolic compounds, essential amino acids and total sugars than conventional crops. Organic crops also contain statistically more mineral compounds and usually have better sensory and long-term storage qualities. However, there are also some negatives: plants cultivated in organic systems generally have 20% lower yields than conventionally produced crops. Several important problems need to be addressed in the coming years: environmental, bacterial and fungal contamination of organic crops and, the most essential issue, the impact of organic food consumption on animal and human health.  © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry Keywords: organic plant crops; quality; yield; composition; nutrition; vitamins; phenolics; sugars; nitrates; nitrites; pesticides; dry matter; health; sensory qualities. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE QUALITY OF ORGANIC PLANT FOOD PRODUCTS There are several important factors in?uencing the quality of food products that also are relevant to organically produced plant products. As illustrated in Fig. 1, the basic factors are the quality of the environment (abiotic factors) and the levels of pest and pathogen damage (biotic factors) to which plants are subjected. The main components of the environment (air, water, soil) have to be unpolluted if the crops obtained are expected to be of high nutritive quality. Many environmental contaminants enter the food production chain (soil–plant–animal–human organism), causing signi? cant problems in human health. 1 These contaminants include heavy metals, pesticide residues, nitrogen compounds, mycotoxins, chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), aromatic hydrocarbons (e. g. benzo[a]pyrene), plant growth stimulators (e. g. choline chloride), antibiotics, hormones, radioactive isotopes and plastic substances (monomers). Climate and weather are also important factors, as well as soil type and pH, soil cultivation, fertilisation and conditions of crop storage after harvest. ? Biotic factors can have also a signi? cant impact on crop quality. The main biotic factors are cultivar choice, bacterial and fungal contamination (disease) and pest damage. Cultivars of the same crop species can differ signi? cantly in nutritive quality. For example, the content of ? carotene in carrots (Daucus carota L. ) can vary between 7. 19 and 13. 84 mg g? 1 depending on the cultivar. 2 The main potential source of bacterial contamination in plant crops is animal manure used in organic farming. Contamination can take place via the roots or by water splashing onto the leaf surfaces. The most important organisms are several species of facultative anaerobic bacteria (Salmonella enterica, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Campylobacter spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Clostridium botulinum, Mycobacterium paratuberculosis), protozoa (Toxoplasma gondii), tapeworms, viruses and prions. The results obtained so far are contradictory. Some studies indicate higher bacterial contamination in organic crops, while others show the opposite. 3 Mycotoxins (produced by fungi) originate mostly in the ? eld but can also develop during storage. Owing to the fact that fungicides are not used Correspondence to: Ewa Rembialkowska, Organic Foodstuffs Division, Faculty of Human Nutrition and Consumer Sciences, Warsaw Agricultural University, Nowoursynowska 159 C, PL-02-776 Warszawa, Poland E-mail: ewa [emailprotected] pl (Received 24 October 2006; revised version received 29 January 2007; accepted 8 February 2007). Figure 1. Factors in? uencing the quality of organic food products. in organic agriculture, some authors believe that organically produced foods will contain higher concentrations of mycotoxins. However, literature reviews show that mycotoxin concentrations are usually similar or reduced in organic compared with conventional products. 4 The most notorious mycotoxins are those produced by Fusarium species on cereal crops and maize. One of the reasons for lower Fusarium infections in organic grains could be the lower nitrogen concentrations in the tissues. 5 Insect pests also exert an in? uence on crop quality. Because of the ban on synthetic pesticides in organic agriculture, insects often damage fruits and vegetables, thereby diminishing their yield and harming their appearance. However, it is not clear whether they also reduce their nutritive quality. In contrast, there is evidence that organically grown plants contain more phytochemicals (which are natural insecticides) and are therefore more resistant to insect damage. 6 They can also play a positive role in human health, because several phytochemicals, being plant defence compounds, are connected with possible health bene? ts (Brandt K, oral presentation at QLIF Congress, Newcastle, 2005). Regulations on organic plant production allow actions that avoid many negative features of crop quality if they are consistently performed by producers. In order to ful? l these demands and to offer highquality products to consumers, an ef? cient and airtight certi? cation and control system must be implemented. In most countries such systems are quite ef?cient, though a rapid increase in the number of organic farms could lead to problems with a subsequent loosening of regulatory control. Therefore the main rule should be ‘trust is good, but control is better’. Moreover, the ? nal quality of organic food products is in? uenced by the effective implementation of 2758 the regulations on animal production and organic food processing. Only precise ful? lment of all these regulations can guarantee the best organic food quality (Fig. 1). IMPACT OF REGULATION ON ORGANIC PLANT PRODUCTION The regulations for organic plant production are clear and detailed. 7 The European Union (EU) regulation published in 19918 contains parts that relate directly to the composition of organic plant products. The most important aspects of this regulation include:7 †¢ a ban on genetic engineering and genetically modi? ed organisms (GMOs); †¢ lower nitrogen levels – a maximum limit for manure application of 170 kg N ha? 1 year? 1 ; †¢ a ban on synthetic pesticides; †¢ a ban on synthetic mineral fertilisers; †¢ a ban on growth promoters. Organic farmers must follow the above regulations if they want to pass the inspection procedure every year and receive a certi? cation document. If all requirements are complied with, several qualitative results can be expected. The most important conclusions from scienti? c comparisons are given below. CONTAMINANTS Nitrates and nitrites A large amount of data shows that the content of nitrates and nitrites is distinctly higher in conventionally cultivated than in organic crops. This is important, because nitrates can easily be converted into nitrites, which can cause a dangerous illness called methaemoglobinaemia in babies, infants and elderly people. 9 J Sci Food Agric 87:2757–2762 (2007) DOI: 10. 1002/jsfa Quality of organic plant products. Moreover, nitrites can react with amines to create nitrosamines, which are carcinogenic and mutagenic substances causing cancer of the digestive tract and leukaemia. 10 This process is dangerous not only for young children but also for adults of any age. Based on a large amount of data, the nitrate content of organic and conventional crops has been compared. On average, the nitrate content of organic crops was 49% that of conventional crops. 11 These and other data provide a basis for stating that organic methods lead to an approximately 50% reduction in the intake of nitrates and nitrites by humans. Pesticides Governments place legal limits, known as the Maximum Residue Level (MRL), on the level of pesticides that can be present in food. The MRL is usually estimated by testing individual pesticides on rats. Governments maintain that consumption of pesticides below the MRL is not a health risk. However, at lower levels, pesticides are known or suspected to cause many diseases and health problems, including cancer. 12 The main problem is that the MRL for pesticides is usually estimated by testing individual pesticides on rats for a relatively short period. Virtually nothing is known about the effects of consuming combinations of potentially hundreds of different pesticides over the course of a lifetime. We do not and cannot know explicitly what is causing what, so precaution is the main tool available to us (Howard V, oral presentation at QLIF Congress, Newcastle, 2005). The levels of pesticide residues found in organic crops are de? nitely lower than those present in conventional crops (Howard V, oral presentation at QLIF Congress, Newcastle, 2005). It can be expected that eating organic foods will result in lower pesticide levels in human milk and body tissues. There is some evidence con? rming this hypothesis. Researchers in France found that the level of pesticide residues in the milk of breast-feeding women decreased signi? cantly with an increase in the proportion of organic food in the daily diet (from 25 to 80%). 13 All available results show that the content of pesticide residues is signi? cantly lower in organic crops, which creates safer health conditions for consumers eating organically. Heavy metals Heavy metals such as cadmium, lead, arsenic, mercury and zinc are introduced into the food chain from various sources, including industry, transportation, communal wastes and agriculture. For example, mineral phosphoric fertilisers used in conventional agriculture can introduce cadmium into crops, but the metal industry and transportation also cause cadmium contamination of soils and crops. Therefore there are no clear results in studies comparing the levels of J Sci Food Agric 87:2757–2762 (2007) DOI: 10. 1002/jsfa heavy metals in organic and conventional crops. Some data point to higher levels in conventional crops, while others show the opposite. 11 A problem to be solved is whether organic farming (composting, increasing the organic matter in soil, pH, etc. ) can diminish the intake of heavy metals by cultivated plants. DESIRABLE COMPOUNDS IN PLANTS Vitamins, phenolic compounds and mineral compounds The nutritive value of foods depends mainly on them having the appropriate content of compounds indispensable for proper functioning of the human organism. The content of phyto-compounds in plant foods is a topic of great interest in food science nowadays. A growing body of evidence indicates that secondary plant metabolites (phytochemicals) play a critical role in human health and may be nutritionally important. 14 There are two main theories explaining the factors in? uencing the levels of compounds in plants. 15 The carbon/nitrogen (C/N) balance theory states that, when nitrogen is easily available, the plant will ? rst make compounds with high nitrogen content, e. g. proteins for growth and nitrogen-containing secondary metabolites such as alkaloids, glucosinolates and non-protein amino acids such as the Allium ? avour precursors. When nitrogen availability is limiting for growth, the metabolism changes more towards carboncontaining compounds, e. g. starch, cellulose and non-nitrogen-containing secondary metabolites such as phenolics and terpenoids. The second, newer theory is the growth/ differentiation balance hypothesis (GDBH). 15 It states that the plant will always assess the resources available to it and optimise its investment in processes directed towards growth or differentiation. The term ‘differentiation’ encompasseses increased formation of defence compounds as well as accelerated maturation and seed development. The C/N balance theory is a special and typical case of the GBDH theory, since low nitrogen availability is the most common growth-limiting condition in natural ecosystems. 15 To verify the above theories, several authors investigated the content of some vitamins and phyto-compounds in organically and conventionally produced crops. In order to summarise different data, for each organic–conventional comparison a % difference was calculated: [(organic ? conventional)/conventional] ? 100 The collected data for several desirable components are presented in Table 1. The role of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) in the human organism is basic for several metabolic functions, mainly because it is one of the major cellular direct antioxidants (along with glutathione) and is a 2759 E Rembialkowska Table 1. Contents of desirable components in organic crops relative to those in conventional crops Component Vitamin C Phenolic compounds Iron Magnesium Phosphorus Mean % difference +28. 7 +119. 3 +21. 1 +29. 3 +13. 6 Range (%) ? 38 to +135. 5 ? 56. 6 to +734. 2 ? 73 to +240 ? 35 to +1206 ? 44 to +240 Number of studies 21 15 16 17 18 production and reduces carbohydrate production. Moreover, the increased protein produced in response to high nitrogen levels contains lower amounts of certain essential amino acids such as lysine and therefore has a lower quality with respect to human nutrition. Source: Ref. 17 and author’s own calculations. cofactor for certain enzymes. Vitamin C also supports detoxication and resistance of the human organism. The higher content of vitamin C in organic crops is bene? cial to health, because vitamin C inhibits the in situ formation of carcinogenic nitrosamines, thus diminishing the negative impact of nitrates on the human organism. 10 Therefore organic vegetables can play an important anticarcinogenic role. Plant-based phenolic metabolites are particularly interesting because of their potential antioxidant activity and medical properties, including anticarcinogenic activity. 15 According to Benbrook,16 organic farming has elevated antioxidant levels in about 85% of the cases studied to date and, on average, levels are about 30% higher compared with foods grown conventionally. Mineral compounds containing iron, magnesium and phosphorus are fundamental for human health. According to Worthington,17 the higher mineral content in organic crops may be connected with the higher abundance of micro-organisms in organically managed soil. These micro-organisms produce many compounds that help plants to combine with soil minerals and make them more available to plant roots. Unfortunately, there have been only a few studies on other vitamins such as ? -carotene, B1 and B2 and the results are contradictory. Therefore no general conclusions can be drawn about these compounds. Total sugars A higher total sugar content in plant crops not only improves their taste but is also an important component of their technological quality, e. g. in the case of sugar beet. Studies clearly indicate a higher content of total sugars, mainly sucrose, in organically produced vegetables and fruits such as carrots, sugar beet, red beetroot, potatoes, spinach, Savoy cabbage, cherries, redcurrants and apples. 11,18 Proteins Several studies analysed in review papers11 show that the quantity of crude protein is lower in organic than in conventional crops but that the quality is better as measured by essential amino acid content. According to Worthington,17 nitrogen from any kind of fertiliser affects the quantity and quality of protein produced by plants. Provision of a large amount of nitrogen to a plant increases protein 2760 SENSORY QUALITY OF ORGANIC FOODS Many studies have proved quite unequivocally that vegetables and fruits from organic farms have a better taste and smell. This was found for carrots and potatoes, celery and red beetroot, head cabbage and tomatoes as well as for apples, cherries and redcurrants. 11 Organic fruits contained more total sugars, which probably in?uenced the better taste perception by consumers. Better taste and smell have also been found for bread made from organic grain, which also had better crumb elasticity. 6 Interesting studies have been conducted on animal food preference in which animals were given organic or conventional fodder. Most studies have proved a clear animal preference for foods produced organically; such studies have been conducted on rats, mice, hens and rabbits. 19 Preference for organic fodder was also observed in cases where, according to chemical analyses, both organic and conventional fodder ful? lled all physiological needs of the animals tested. 20 The reason for this was probably the difference in taste between organic and conventional fodder. STORAGE QUALITY OF ORGANIC PLANT CROPS Transpiration losses and decay processes, as well as changes in nutritive value, normally take place during the storage period of potatoes and other vegetables. However, these changes can proceed at different rates and to differing degrees. Most of the available data indicate that the decay process is slower in organic crops, which therefore show better storage quality after the winter period. A review study based on many sources21 concluded that the storage quality of vegetables and fruits was better in the case of plants grown on organic farms (Table 2). The better storage quality of organic crops Table 2. Storage losses of carrots, potatoes and various fruits and vegetables from organic (ORG) and conventional (CONV) farmsa Carrots Potatoes Fruits and vegetables ORG CONV ORG CONV ORG CONV Number of quoted studies Storage loss (% of initial mass) a 15 33 15 40 22 22 22 30 53 28 53 38 Average data based on literature review. 21 J Sci Food Agric 87:2757–2762 (2007) DOI: 10. 1002/jsfa Quality of organic plant products Table 3. Positive nutritive attributes of organic plant products No. 1 2 3 4 5 Attribute Organic crops contain fewer nitrates, nitrites and pesticide residues than conventional crops. There is no clear difference in the content of heavy metals between organic and conventional crops Organic plant products contain, as a rule, more dry matter, vitamin C, phenolic compounds, essential amino acids and total sugars. However, the level of ? -carotene is often higher in conventional plant products Organic plant products contain statistically more iron, magnesium and phosphorus. They also tend to contain more chromium, iodine, molybdenum, selenium, calcium, boron, manganese, copper, potassium, sodium, vanadium and zinc Organic plant products usually have better sensory quality. They have a clearer smell and taste and are sweeter and more compact because of their higher dry matter content Preference for organic products is typical not only for humans but also for animals such as rats, rabbits and hens. This preference was also observed in cases where, according to chemical analyses, both organic and conventional fodder ful? lled all physiological needs of the animals tested Vegetables and fruits from organic production maintain better quality during winter storage, showing lower mass losses due to transpiration, decay and decomposition processes. A possible reason for this is their higher content of dry matter, minerals, sugars and other bioactive compounds 6 Table 4. Negative and unclear aspects of organic plant products No. 1 Negative aspect Plants cultivated in organic systems have, as a rule, signi?cantly (on average 20%) lower yields than conventionally produced crops. This increases their price and creates for many consumers a barrier to buying organic foods Unclear aspect Environmental contamination (heavy metals, PCBs, dioxins, aromatic hydrocarbons) can be similar in organic and conventional crops, because the impact of industrial, transport and communal sources is similar on organic and conventional farms located in the same area Bacterial (mainly Salmonella and Campylobacter) Contamination can sometimes be higher in organic produce, but scienti?c evidence of this is still not clear Mycotoxins can contaminate both organic and conventional foods, but scienti? c data are contradictory The impact of organic food consumption on human health and wellbeing remains essentially unknown in spite of some positive indications, so the subject needs further study 2 3 4 was probably associated with a higher content of dry matter in their ? esh, resulting in less extensive decay and decomposition. Lower losses in organic production have not only nutritive but also economic bene? ts. In conventional systems, high yields are produced but signi?cant losses during storage reduce the economic bene? ts. CONCLUSIONS Recent food crises (BSE, foot and mouth disease, food contamination by dioxins, toxic fungi, Salmonella and Campylobacter bacteria) have caused consumers to look for more authentic and safer foods. Organic food production is widely recognised as being more friendly to the environment, more controlled and better for animal welfare. On the other hand, many data indicate that a lot of food contaminants have their source in conventional methods of agriculture, animal production and food processing. The negative effect of the continuing enthusiastic use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides in agriculture is potentially huge. Therefore safer methods of agricultural production, mostly organic methods, are very important. Studies conducted in various countries have indicated several positive attributes of organic plant J Sci Food Agric 87:2757–2762 (2007) DOI: 10. 1002/jsfa products (Table 3) but also a few negative and unclear aspects (Table 4). To summarise the positives, organic food should be recommended for all, but especially for young babies, pregnant and breast-feeding women, elderly and chronically ill people and vegetarians. The last group obviously consumes a lot of vegetables, which can contain too high levels of carcinogenic substances when produced conventionally. The lower content of nitrates and higher content of phenolic compounds and vitamin C in organic crops are especially important for health. Nitrates are easily converted in the digestive tract into poisonous nitrites, which are the precursors of carcinogenic nitrosamines. This process is hampered by vitamin C, and carcinogenesis is retarded by phenolic compounds and other dietary phytochemicals present at higher levels in organically produced crops. Therefore organic vegetables can play an important anticarcinogenic role. REFERENCES 1 Rembialkowska E, Organic agriculture and food quality, in Ecological Agriculture and Rural Development in Central and Eastern European Countries, Vol. 44 of NATO Science Series, ed. by Filho WL. IOS Press, Amsterdam, pp. 185–204 (2004). 2761 E Rembialkowska ? ? 2 Schuphan W, Biochemische Sortenprufung an Gartenmohren ? ? als neuzeitliche Grundlage fur planvolle Zuchtungsarbeit. Z? chter 2:25–43 (1942). U 3 Franz E, van Bruggen AHC and Semenov AM, Risk-analysis of human pathogen spread in the vegetable industry: a comparison between organic and conventional production chains, in Bayesian Statistics and Quality Modelling in the AgroFood Production Chain, ed. by van Boekel MAJS, Stein A and van Bruggen AHC. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht, pp. 81–94 (2004). 4 FAO, Food Safety as Affected by Organic Farming (Twentysecond FAO Regional Conference for Europe). [Online]. (2000). Available: www. fao. org/docrep/meeting/x4983. htm. 5 Van Bruggen AHC and Termorshuizen AJ, Integrated approaches to root disease management in organic farming systems. Aust Plant Pathol 32:141–156 (2003). 6 Bjorn G and Fruekilde AM, Cepa onions (Allium cepa L) grown conventionally and organically – similarities and differences. Gron Viden 153:1–6 (2003). (in Danish). 7 Hansen B, Alroe HF, Kristensen ES and Wier M, Assessment of food safety in organic farming. DARCOF Working Paper 52 (2002). 8 EU, Council Regulation No. 2092/91 of 24 June 1991 on organic production of agricultural products and indications referring thereto on agricultural products and foodstuffs. OJL 198, 22. 7 P. 1 (1991). ? 9 Szponar L and Kierzkowska E, Azotany i azotyny w srodowisku oraz ich wplyw na zdrowie czlowieka. Post Hig Med Do? w s 44:327–350 (1990). 10 Mirvish SS, Vitamin C inhibition of N-nitroso compounds formation. Am J Clin Nutr 57:598–599 (1993). 11 Rembialkowska E, Wholesomeness and Sensory Quality of Potatoes and Selected Vegetables from the Organic Farms. Fundacja ? Rozwoj SGGW, Warszawa (2000). 12 BMA, The BMA Guide to Pesticides, Chemicals and Health. Report of Science and Education. British Medical Association, London (1992). 13 Aubert C, Pollution du lait maternel, une enquete de terre vivante. Quatre Saisons Jardinage 42:33–39 (1987). 14 Lundeg? rdh B and M?rtensson A, Organically produced plant a a foods – evidence of health bene? ts. Acta Agric Scand B 53:3–15 (2003). 15 Brandt K and Molgaard JP, Organic agriculture: does it enhance or reduce the nutritional value of plant foods? J Sci Food Agric 81:924–931 (2001). 16 Benbrook CM, Elevating Antioxidant Levels in Food through Organic Farming and Food Processing. An Organic Center of Science Review. Organic Center for Education and Promotion (2005). 17 Worthington V, Nutritional quality of organic versus conventional fruits, vegetables, and grains. J Alternative Compl Med 7:161–173 (2001). 18 Zadoks JC, Development of Farming Systems. Pudoc, Wageningen (1989). 19 Williams CM, Nutritional quality of organic food: shades of grey or shades of green? Proc Nutr Soc 61:19–24 (2002). ? 20 Woese K, Lange D, Boess Ch and Bogl KW, A comparison of organically and conventionally grown foods – results of a review of the relevant literature. J Sci Food Agric 74:281–293 (1997). 21 Bulling W, Qualit? tsvergleich von ‘biologisch’ und ‘konventionell’ a erzeugten Feldfruchten. Regierungsprasidium, Stuttgart (1987). 2762 J Sci Food Agric 87:2757–2762 (2007) DOI: 10. 1002/jsfa.

Company Watch - BSkyB :: Business and Management Studies

Company Watch - BSkyB COMPANY WATCH The company that I have chosen that is in the Ftse 100 is BSkyB and the rival company to BSkyB that I have chosen is Cable & Wireless (C & W). I will be monitoring these companies over four weeks and recording and analysing their share prices as well as the Ftse 100. I will be using The Times newspaper to obtain share prices and business information regarding the companies and the Ftse. HISTORY OF BSKYB In 1989 Sky introduced satellite television to the UK with four channels. By 1990 sky reached one million homes and merged with British Satellite Broadcasting (BSB) to form BSkyB. In 1991 Sky and BSB streamline their channels into five separate channels. Between 1992 and 1993 BSkyB secures exclusive rights to live FA Premier League football coverage and Sky Multi-Channels launch with a package of 14 channels at basic subscription level. In 1994 five more channels are introduced and Sky announces  £13 million investment in British films including a major output deal with British Screen. Also in 1994 17% of BSkyB is floated on the UK and US Stock Exchanges. By 1995 BSkyB enters the FTSE 100 index, six more channels are added and subscribers exceed five million. In 1996 BSkyB secure a contract for FA Premier league football until 2001 season. In 1998 Sky digital launches offering 140 channels. More than 100,000 decoders are sold in the first 30 days. In 1999 BSkyB enters the list of world's top 250 companies. Also Sky digital is the fastest growing digital platform in Europe acquiring over 1.2 million subscribers in just 10 months and free set top digital box offer increases subscribers. In 2000 Sky receives Gold Award for outstanding contribution to television at the Royal Television Society Programme Awards and digital subscribers grow to 3 million. In 2001 BSkyB reaches its target of 5 million subscribers and switches off its analogue signal, BSkyB also launch Sky +, Europe's first fully integrated personal television recorder. By now in 2002 Sky digital now reaches 5.7 million households which is a quarter of all British homes and has a target of 7 million digital subscribers by the end of 2003. For the first time, more people are watching multichannel television than the five traditional public service channels. HOW BSKYB HAS FARED OVER 4 WEEK PERIOD Articles Concerning BSkyB Over this period the main articles for BSkyB in the news were that Dawn Airey will become the managing director of BskyB, being paid  £1 million a year. Dawn Airey formerly work as the Channel Five chief executive but was seemingly joining the ITV network but was snatched

Organizational Management and Operations Paper Essay

In this organizational management and operations paper the student will identify, compare, and contrast the policing function at the local, state, and federal organizational levels. The student will analyze how organizational, management, administration, and operational functions at these three organizational levels. The student will identify in what ways the different organizational levels are similar or different and why. Finally, the leadership characteristics and responsibilities pertaining to each organizational level will be identified. Local Law Enforcement There are many roles in which local law enforcement agencies take part in. The duties, functions, and responsibilities of local law enforcement agencies are broken down into many different roles. Local law enforcement agencies are in place to provide routine patrol of the communities within their jurisdictions. They provide emergency services, and uphold traffic enforcement laws. They conduct criminal investigations/planning and analysis. They provide detention for adults and juveniles, offer community services, crime prevention communications, community relations, and much more. State Law Enforcement State law enforcement consists of state police departments and highway patrol. State law enforcement is like a local or county police department, only with a much larger jurisdiction. State police departments usually have many specialized units, such as investigative branches, aviation units, and tactical teams. Highway Patrol Officers, on the other hand, usually are tasked with ensuring the safety of the roadways of the state. Many states also have additional specialized state agencies. Some states with highway  patrols have a separate state investigative agency. For instance, Florida’s FDLE conducts statewide investigations and assists local and county agencies with complex investigations of their own. One may think of this like a â€Å"state FBI.† Federal Law Enforcement There are two different types of federal agencies, uniformed agencies and investigative agencies (although some do both). They provide uniformed law enforcement services for a specific location, such as The White House, United States Capital, FBI Building, US Parks, Supreme Court, various federal buildings. The other main type of federal agency is the investigative agency. These agencies have an assigned section of the United States Code that they enforce. For example, the DEA deals with drug laws, and the Secret Service focuses on crimes involving currency. In addition to the common agencies, all federal departments have an Office of the Inspector General that employs criminal investigators to investigate fraud within the department. On the negative side, working for the federal government can mean that one is at their beck and call when concerning relocation. While obviously not a concern with some of the uniformed agencies, relocation can be a concern if one works for the more nat ionalized federal agencies. For the most part local, state, and federal law enforcement agencies share the same directives as well as support and oversee the same laws of the land. The only obvious differences that these three agencies have are their jurisdictions, resources, staffing, funding, budgets, support, and operations. In today’s society the roles and duties that are assigned to law enforcement will continue to change every day. Organizational Management In the early 1990s the New York Police Department (NYPD) was as â€Å"paralyzed† basically reluctant to act out of fear of making mistakes. As an organization the NYPD suffered with productivity from the officers up to and including the chief (Harvard Kennedy School, 2013). The crime reporting system used was extremely dated hence the creation of a new software system that analyzed crime data entered into a computer, which maintained statistics (COMPSTAT). This data was evaluated regularly, which offered commanders the ability to develop strategies for awareness, patrol, and  resource allocation, solving crimes, and quality of life improvement for the citizens in the jurisdiction. If the data is entered in COMPSAT properly, estimates of crimes can be made to include what type, times of day, and locations (Harvard Kennedy School, 2013). This valuable management tool allows chiefs, sheriffs, and commanders with a graphic representation of what is occurring in an area of responsibility, which will assist with organizational management. Developing awareness of when and where crimes are likely to be committed allows supervisors to allocate resources in those potentially affected areas to aid in crime reduction. This tool helps with long-term (proactive) planning by knowing how many patrols are needed in certain areas and what times they need to be present (Harvard Kennedy School, 2013). The COMPSTAT predictions also can be beneficial when projecting operational and functional budgets for the fiscal budget. The COMPSTAT data blended with actual crime reporting can justify resource allocation both for personnel and money. Finally the principles of COMPSTAT are only beneficial if the officers, patrols, and supervisors conduct follow-up assessments to ensure the desired results are actually achieved. COMPSTAT is a proven to ol for organizational management, but like any tool if not used properly it could be more harmful than valuable (Harvard Kennedy School, 2013). Administration and Operational Aspects Within any law enforcement agency, the administration section is a paramount tool. Some of the many duties that fall under the task of the administration section include training (includes sworn officers and civilians), computer systems, departmental forms, budgets, and records just to name a few (Police Administration Division, 2013). The responsibility of this section will usually lie in the hands of a Lieutenant or Sergeant who will answer to the Chief or Sheriff. The agency relies heavily on this section for up to date information. If there is a lapse in judgment or something is forgotten, it can have a drastic impact. For example, if records are not maintained properly, officers will have issues with they stop someone and run their information. That person could be wanted for murder and the officer would never know. Law enforcement is always expanding and looking to improve on how operations  are conducted. It is essential that the agency keeps an open mind and looks to make changes when needed. For example, if the agency hires a transfer from another department and that officer thinks there is a better way to handle a specific aspect of law enforcement, the agency should consider what that officer is saying. The department that the officer came from may have some technology or information that the new agency does not. Leadership Characteristics and Responsibilities The leadership characteristics and responsibilities at the different levels are very similar. Leaders are born, not made. The leadership traits are developed through education, training and hard work. Leaders inspire others by setting an example. They show others that they care and have compassion for those that they lead. Leaders accept the fact that mistakes happen and a part of the job. They prevail against the odds not letting the obstacles get in the way. A leader’s since of duty calls them toward quality not quantity. They believe in the people they lead. Effective leadership encompasses both tactical and technical proficiencies. Leaders do not forget where they came from, regardless of rank. Higher ranking officers have a unique responsibility to demonstrate leadership and this is their primary operational function. (Gonzalez, 2014) Conclusion With the onset of a new millennium, American police agencies face new challenges. The terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon changed the way in which law enforcement collectively thinks about public safety and security. Priorities for training at all levels, equipment, strategies, and funding have transformed policing once again this time focusing on homeland security history of American police systems from the English heritage through the last years of the 20thcentury. A number of present-day issues have roots in different epochs of American history. For example, the idea of community policing is traced to the colonial period and to medieval England. Preventive patrol, legitimacy, authority, and professionalism are 18th and 19th century concepts. Riots, disorders, and corruption are not new to American policing, similar events occurred in the 19th century. Thus by virtue of studying history, this can give contextual  meaning to current police problems, ideas, and situations. Looking at the past, present-day events can be better understood. References Bechtel, H. K. (1995). State Police in the United States. Westport conn: Greenwood Press. Bryan Vila, C. M. (1994). Police in Contradiction: The Evolution of the Police Funtion in Society. Westport: Greenwood Press. Bryan Vila, C. M. (1999). The Role of Police in American Society. Westport: Greenwood Press. Gonzalez, R. (2014). 10 key qualities of law enforcement leaders. Retrieved April 20, 2014, from Police One.com: http://www.policeone.com/news/1204313-10-key-qualities-of-law-enforcement-leaders/ Harvard Kennedy School. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.innovations.harvard.edu/awards.html?id=3716 Police Administration Division. (2013). Retrieved from http://www.mysanibel.com/Departments/Police-including-Emergency-Management/Police-Administrative-Division Roberts, D. J. (2013). Technology Is Playing an Expanding Role in Policing. The Police Chief, Retrieved from http://www.policechiefmagazine.org/magazine/index.cfm?fuseaction=display&issue_id=12011&category_ID=4 Uchida, C. D. (2004). Justice and Security Stratagies. Inc .

The influence of toxic stress on socio-emotional development Free Essay Example, 2250 words

A group of researchers led by Chen conducted a study on development of recurrent MD as a result of the early sexual abuse among Chinese women. The research evaluated the non-genital, intercourse and genital childhood sexual abuse (CSA) to study their risk in experiencing recurrent MD (Chen et al, 2014). The study gives a better understanding of the early maltreatments in childhood that leads to adult-onset depression. Children could have been victims of their rape and molestation due to negligence of their parents, from their caregivers or relatives. Therefore, as these children grow up their childhood experiences could diverge from the normal healthy relationships, as they try to isolate themselves and suffer emotional breakdown when they threatened again or remember the incidences. In relation to the CSA, the research established that victims of CSA were associated with increased risk of developing recurrent MD, CSA was associated with suicidal ideas, feeling of self-worthlessness and guilt, resulted in symptoms of recurrent MD, right from longer depressive episodes, high risks of phobia and dysthymia (Chen et al, 2014). With severity, lack of intervention early in time combined with repetitive trauma definitely pushes the child or an adult to depression state. It is evident that childhood victims of sexual abuse are at a greater risk of suffering more drastic and long term mental disorder. We will write a custom essay sample on The influence of toxic stress on socio-emotional development or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now From a psychological understanding of depression during childhood development, sexual abuse has an effect on the level of cortisol hormone. Sexual abuse could cause PTSD or chronic toxic stress, which causes the body to secrete high or very low level of cortisol hormone only to overload the stress response system and harm the development, wellbeing or health of the an individual (Society for Research in Child Development, 2010). Children or even adults could develop trust issues and lead an isolated life, to form loose relationships with those supposed to be close to them. For clinicians and caregivers assisting victims of sexual abuse and patients suffering from depression, understanding the patient’s history would help in their psychological therapy. Early therapeutic interventions have the ability to help depressed victims from CSA be able to overcome depression and other symptoms owing to it. The article is quite informative and confirms the results of other studies on psychological effect for victims of sexual abuse. 2. Neglect and learning difficulties Child abuse and neglect ion can have a devastating effect on the brain development of minors.